New radiocarbon measurements of the Dead Sea Scrolls made by scientists at the National
Science Foundation Arizona Accelerator Mass Spectrometer (AMS) Laboratory at The University of
Arizona in Tucson on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority agree with paleographic dates of most
texts from the Judean Desert.
A. J. Timothy Jull and Douglas J. Donahue of the UA in Tucson, Emanuel Tov, Editor-in-
Chief of the Dead Sea Scrolls Publication Project, Hebrew University, and Magen Broshi, former
Director Curator of the Shrine of the Book, Israel Museum, Jerusalem, are announcing the results
today. They are submitting a scientific article for publication in Atiqot and other journals.
Jull, a research geoscientist in the lab, and Donahue, a physics professor and director of the
Arizona AMS facility, measured the amount of radioactive carbon in samples of 18 texts and two
textiles from four Qumran Caves and from Nahal Hever, both near the Dead Sea. All except four of the
samples of scrolls were taken on March 21 and 22, 1994, by staff at either the Rockefeller or Israel
Museums in Jerusalem, where the scrolls are exhibited and studied, while Jull, Donahue, Tov and
Broshi observed. Four more samples were taken later at the Israel Museum's Shrine of the Book and
sent to Tucson for analysis.
The Dead Sea Scrolls generally are considered to have been copied by the Qumran
community, identified by most scholars as the Essenes, between the mid-third century BCE (Before
Common Era) and 68 CE (Common Era), when the Romans annihilated the Qumran settlement. Their
discovery in 1947 by a young Arab shepherd is regarded by many as one of the greatest archaeological
finds of all time. Between 1947 and 1960, 11 caves yielded fragments of a total of 800 scrolls
untouched for 2,000 years. The parchment and papyrus scrolls are a thousand years older than any
previously known Hebrew manuscript of the Hebrew Bible and have been crucial to the understanding
of scripture.
Scholars with a special interest in obtaining carbon 14 dates for particular texts because of the
documents' contents suggested which scrolls from the Judean Desert might be dated. Three scrolls
came from Qumran Cave 1, twelve scrolls from Cave 4 and three from other sites in the Judean desert.
Scholars and researchers agreed to take no samples which might cause any significant damage to the
scrolls themselves. Only milligrams of a sample are needed for radiocarbon age dating by accelerator
mass spectrometer technique. All samples were taken from ragged edges of top or bottom margins, and
photographs record the exact locations of the pieces taken for analysis. Some samples from date-
bearing documents were added as control texts, and the identity and ages of these materials were not
revealed to the UA science team in advance. One of the control samples -- a sample of the Book of
Isaiah scroll from Qumran Cave 1 -- previously had been radiocarbon age dated at ETH-Zurich in
1990-91, and its identity, too, was unknown to the UA scientists during their tests. The new test results
agree with actual written dates on the dated documents and with the Zurich radiocarbon results
obtained earlier. The new test results also confirm the reliability of paleography, a comparative study of
script.
"The major importance of the new carbon 14 examinations is that they suggest dates which are
very close to the dates suggested by paleographers," said Emanuel Tov. "Scholars are interested in the
newly conducted carbon 14 examinations, as the objectively obtained dates will be applied to the
continued study of the texts," he said.
Some of the newly analyzed texts are of central importance for our understanding of the
Qumran community, he added, citing four such texts that concern various aspects of the Qumran legal
system. Another text, the well-known pesher or commentary on Habakkuk, which is on display at the
Shrine of the Book, is of fundamental importance for the historical reconstruction of the origins of the
Qumran sect. The new radiocarbon dates show the manuscript was written before 43 BCE -- contrary
to theory that says there was an early Christian connection to the Qumran sect.
The UA team radiocarbon dated the famous Book of Isaiah scroll at between 335 BCE and
122 BCE. Paleographers had dated this scroll at between 150 - 125 BCE. The team also analyzed the
commentary on the Psalms (UA radiocarbon dated at between 22 CE and 78 CE); the Messianic
Apocalypse that paleographers date at 100 BCE to 80 BCE (UA radiocarbon dated at between 35 BCE
and 59 CE); the Exodus scroll of the Bible written in ancient Hebrew script that paleographers date at
between 100 BCE and 25 BCE (UA radiocarbon tests date it between 159 BCE and 16 CE); and an
inscribed round leather patch with holes that was attached to the Exodus scroll. Paleographers date the
patch between 50 BCE and 50 CE (UA radiocarbon dated the patch at from 98 BCE to 13 CE).
Inscribed patches of this sort have been described in ancient Jewish writings, Tov said.
Other documents dated at the UA by radiocarbon technique are an astrology text called Phases
of the Moon (UA radiocarbon dated at between 164 BCE and 93 BCE) and another text called Midrash
Sepher Moshe (UA radiocarbon dated between 191 BCE and 90 BCE), both written in the esoteric
script of the Qumran community. UA radiocarbon dating also supports paleographers' suspicion that a
letter in Judeo-Aramaic and a debt acknowledgement document are probably not of Qumranic origin
but texts dating from first and early second century CE, fragments bought from Bedouin and probably
mixed up with the Qumran fragments by antiquity dealers.
The technique of radiocarbon dating, which was invented and developed by Nobel Prize-
winning chemist Willard F. Libby shortly after World War II, is a method to measure the age of objects
by measuring their radioactive carbon content. All living things contain the radioactive isotope of
carbon, carbon 14, which is created when cosmic rays from space strike Earth's atmosphere. This small
amount of carbon 14 is quickly incorporated into atmospheric carbon dioxide and from there into the
tissues of plants, animals and humans. As long as an organism lives, the amount of radioactive carbon
in its tissues remains at a fixed level. But at death, an organism ceases to take carbon 14 from the
environment. The radioactive carbon present in tissues at death decays at a constant known rate,
decaying by half every 5,700 years.
Early in the 1980s, scientists at the UA in Tucson began using a new accelerator method that
revolutionized radiocarbon dating technique. They established the National Science Foundation-
supported Arizona Accelerator Facility for Radioisotope Analysis that features a tandem accelerator
mass spectrometer, the first of its kind in the world dedicated exclusively to radiocarbon dating. The
UA lab has radiocarbon dated more than 12,000 samples, probably more than any other lab in the
world. The accelerator sorts and counts carbon isotopes by mass, enabling researchers to directly count
carbon 14 atoms in a sample in about an hour. More importantly, the method requires only milligrams
of a sample of the object to be dated, which contrasts with the gram-size samples needed in the
conventional technique. The conventional technique took days, weeks, or even a month, until enough
radioactive carbon atoms decayed so they could be counted.
- From Lori Stiles University of Arizona, News Services
http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/rels/225/stewart.htm
TIME REFERENCES IN THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS
by Allison Stewart
Table of Contents
Introduction
Jubilees and Sabbaticals: The War Scroll
Temporal Consciousness of the Present and Personal
Confusions and Clarifications
Conclusion
Sources
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To search, enter a word, name, or reference
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<0.1> Introduction
The people who wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS) appear to have used a complex system of references
to time, for what reason we do not know. They seem to have separated events temporally on several
levels or categories, often with names that are unfamiliar to us because they are no longer used. To
some extent this ambiguity can be clarified using the texts of the DSS themselves, beginning with the
concepts of Jubilees and Sabbaticals, which I will examine first. These concepts, in turn, are helpful to
exp lain the time references in the War Scroll.
<1.0> Jubilees and Sabbaticals: The War Scroll
The concepts expressed in the apocryphal text of
The Book of Jubilees
seem to have impacted the Dead
Sea Scrolls Community to a great extent. If we were only to look at the shear mass of copies of this text
that were found, (fifteen to sixteen (Van der Kam, 153)), we would already be able to infer a great deal
about its importance in the Community. However, there is more to the text of Jubilees than merely the
number of copies preserved in the Qumran caves. The concept of jubilee appears in many texts,
including ones assumed to be authoritative rule books for the Community. Jubilee references also
appear in parabiblical, liturgical, and calendrical texts known solely from the Qumran excavation.
<1.1>
The concept of a "jubilee" or "jubilees" appears in many of the authoritative texts of the Dead Sea
Scrolls. In three fragments of the Damascus Document (Zadokite fragment), two from the Dead Sea
and one from the Cairo Geniza, we find references to the Book of Jubilees. The Damascus Document,
when speaking of the man who pledges himself to return to the laws of Moses, says "[... the exact
interpretation of their ages about the blindness of] Israel on all these matters, behold, [it is defined] in
the boo k [<>] (GM 58, 4Q268, frag. 2, 2.5). This same reference appears in another Qumran
document, (GM 64, 4Q270, frag. 10, 2.17) and also in the Cairo Geniza copy of the Damascus
Document (GM 39, CD-A, 16.3-4). The book referred to in these quotations is undoubtedly the Book
of Jubilees, as the author of Jubilees himself refers to the book as "the account of the divisions of the
days of the law and of the testimony, of the events of the years, according to their year-weeks and their
jubilees" (Sparks, 10). But the appearance of such a reference in the Damascus Document may not
conclusively prove that Jubilees received the reverence from the people of the Dead Sea Scrolls that it
app ears to have merited in the Damascus Document. Due to the presence of the Damascus Document
in other geographic locations (such as the Cairo Geniza), we cannot conclusively infer that the Book of
Jubilees was a document the Scrolls Community followed or even found important. So, we must look
elsewhere to discover the importance of the Jubilee concept to the Dead Sea Scrolls Community.
<1.2>
Luckily, a reference to the Jubilee concept is found in an authoritative document known exclusively
from the Qumran excavation, the Rule of the Community. A reference found in the 4Q259 copy of The
Rule of the Community (GM 29, 11) clearly refers to jubilee, saying "...their Releases and about their
jubilees." However, it should be noted that this copy of the Rule of the Community includes some
passages not included in the larger copy (GM 3, 1QS) and has additional text at its end, including the
text containing the jubilee reference. These two documents are clearly not identical, although they
reflect the same instructional tradition (Kraft). There may be some reason to suspect this jubilee
reference due to its lack of inclusion in the 1QS copy of the Rule of the Community. This may lead to
the same problem encountered with the Damascus Document references, as the question may arise as to
whether or not the 4Q259 fragment was actively followed at by the people of the Dead Sea Scrolls as
part of the Rule, or just kept "on file."
<1.3>
Although it may not be possible to arrive at a definitive answer regarding the presence of Jubilee
references in the authoritative works of the Scrolls Community, other references to the jubilee concept
abound in the Dead Sea Scrolls. One such instance occurs in the calendrical texts, which are likely to
be isolated to the Dead Sea Scrolls Community since they employ a three hundred and sixty four day
calendar, a calendar not widely in use at the time (VanderKam, 114-115). In 4QCalendrical Document
A ( 4Q320, GM 452-453), there are two references to jubilee. One specifically refers to the second
jubilee (frag. 2, 1.6), while the other mentions jubilee in the framework of "the days, the weeks, and the
months,
Blank
the years, the Releases and the jubilees" (frag. 4, 2.10-13). The presence of such
references in such sectarian documents implies that the terminology was at least present and in use in
the Scrolls Community.
<1.4>
Jubilee references show up in parabiblical texts and texts with eschatological content from the Qumran
excavation as well. In the text named Pseudo-Moses (4Q378a, GM 279), a time limit is set concerning
instruction "in the service of the deeds," of "ten jubilees of years." An apocalyptic use of the jubilee
terminology is found in 4Q390 (GM 280, frag. 1, 7-9): "in the seventh jubilee of the devastation of the
land, they will forget the law, the festival, the sabbath and the covenant; and t hey will disobey
everything and will do what is evil in my eyes." The jubilee terminology shows up in historical time
references in this group of texts as well, such as in the Psalms of Joshua (GM 283, 4Q379, frag. 12),
where the texts refers to the Isra elites crossing the Jordan dryshod "in the [fi]rst month of the forty-
first year of their departure from the land of Egypt; this was the year of the Jubilees from the start of
their entry into the land of Canaan." Jubilee is mentioned in the 11QMelchized ek document (GM 139,
11Q13, 2.2-3) as well with a quote from Leviticus (25:13). This quote elucidates on the concept of
Jubilee as the return of all property to its original owner. Further reference to Jubilee is found in
11QMelchizedek in lines six thro ugh eight when the date is set for freedom from iniquities for "the
sons of [God]", the "men of the lot of Melchizedek," as the "first week of the jubilee which follows the
ni[ne] jubilees."
<1.5>
Related to this concept of Jubilee is the sabbatical year cycle. Since the Jubilee cycle, as put forth by
the Book of Jubilees (both the present editions and the editions found during the Qumran excavation),
consists of seven, seven year cycles of six years followed by a sabbatical year, in which the land is let
fallow, the terms are intimately related. This sabbatical year concept also shows up in several of the
Dead Sea Scrolls unaffiliated specifically with jubilee. In the Rule of the Community (GM 1 5, 1QS,
10.7-8), there is mention of "seven-year periods." In the Liturgical text of 4Q286 (GM 434) there is a
reference to "the sabbaths of the earth," and "the festivals of release" (frag. 1, 2.11). In Pseudo-Moses
(1Q22) we find a command to leave th e land at rest every seven years, and that in this year, we should
grant a release (GM 277, 3.1,4). The references to sabbatical years exist throughout the documents of
the Dead Sea Scrolls. The relationship of the sabbatical years to the Jubilee concept is evident, and
these references, together with the specific references to jubilee, form a basis for the assumption that
the jubilee was a unit of time important and vital to the Dead Sea Scrolls Community.
<1.6>
Once the importance of the sabbatical year and Jubilee cycle is established in the Dead Sea Scrolls, we
are able to understand other parts of the scrolls more fully. This is well evidenced by the War Scroll.
The War Scroll precisely details the timing o f the war of the sons of light against the sons of darkness.
The War Scroll presents a war of "thirty-five years of service" (GM 96, 1QM, 2.9). The War Scroll
further states that during "the years of release" (2.8), or sabbatical years, the sons of light shall not
fight. Combining these two pieces of information, along with a Pesher on the Psalms which discusses
the end of evil at the end of forty years (GM 203, 4Q171, 2.7-8), we come up with a forty year war of
the sons of light verses the sons of darkness. The only problem with this construction is the passage
which immediately precedes it, which discusses the fact that certain things should be prepared during
the year of release, and "the remaining thirty-three years of the war" (GM 96, 1QM, 2.6). How to
reconcile this apparent inconsistency is unknown. Maybe both refer to the same amount of time, just in
different ways. It is possible that the thirty-three year reference does not include sabbatical years, and
the extra two years after the addit ion of the sabbatical years is required for some calendrical
modification that we are unaware of. Perhaps there was simply a scribal error perpetuated over many
copies, or perhaps there is some other temporal system in operation with the mention of the thirty-three
years of the war. It is interesting to note that neither time period of war fits neatly into the framework
of the final warfare presented in the Biblical book of Daniel. In Daniel (9.24) seventy weeks are
decreed "to finish the transgression , and to make an end to sins." This book further mentions that
Jerusalem will be rebuilt over sixty-two weeks, and the anointed leader will appear seven weeks after
the word to rebuild Jerusalem is issued. Neither a thirty-three, thirty-five, or a forty year war fits into
the Daniel time scheme. The timing of the war described in the War Scroll will remain a mystery.
Although we can force one reference to yield a familiar forty year war, we are unable to do the same
with the other reference, and since both references clash with Biblical timing for final warfare, the
length of the "war of all against all" described in the War Scroll will remain a mystery.
<1.7>
The jubilee concept, along with its sabbatical years, appears to have been a concept actively employed
in the timing of the Dead Sea Scrolls Community. The references to jubilees and years of release
appear throughout the documents of the community, implying some of the importance the concept may
have had. This concept becomes important in interpreting some of the other documents appearing at
Qumran, such as the War Scroll. Although the sabbatical cycle concept does not make timing evident
for the modern reader, and sometimes even confuses us further, it must have made it all the more
evident for the Qumran reader since the terminology is employed so frequently.
<2.0> Temporal Consciousness of the Present and Personal
The temporal consciousness of the Dead Sea Scrolls people extended beyond the parsing of their past
and future history into their own personal and present lives. The Scrolls Community's obsession with
the exactness of time is further evidenced by the age requirements placed on their members for
achievement of certain positions within the sect. These requirements start with the introduction of a
youth into the Scrolls Community. In The Rule of the Congregation (GM 126, 1Q28a, 1), we learn the
growth cycle of a young inductee into the sect. "From his y[outh] [they shall edu]cate him in the book
of HAGY, and according to his age, instruct him in the precepts of the covenant" (GM 126, 1Q28a,
1.7). This document tells us that during ten years the potential inductee will be counted among the
boys, and in his twentieth year, he will become enrolled in the "holy community" (1.8-9). This account
only allots for a youth starting at the age of ten years old, since after ten years as a "boy", only a ten
year ol d will be twenty. The Rule of the Congregation continues to comment on the prohibition of
intercourse with a woman until the age of twenty. At the age of twenty-five, a man is allowed "to
perform the service of the congregation (1.12-13), and at thirty, he is allowed to "arbitrate in disputes
and judgements, and to take his place among the chiefs of the thousand of Israel" (1.13-14).
<2.1>
Other Dead Sea Scrolls tell of the age requirements placed on people allowed to arbitrate disputes as
well. Interestingly enough, these other instances of ages required to arbitrate disputes do not agree with
the Rule of the Congregation's thirty year benchmark, instead citing a minimum requirement of twenty-
five years, along with the usual learned in the book of HAGY. These sources in addition place an upper
limit of sixty years on their judges, citing man's sin as the reason man's days were shortened. Even
more interesting is that these instances of inconsistency all occur in copies of the Damascus Document,
both from Qumran as well as from the Cairo Geniza. The Damascus Document says of the rule of the
judges of the congregation that they should be "[lea]rned in the book of HAGY and in the princi[ples of
the covenant, between] twenty-five and sixty years" (GM 55, 4Q267, frag. 17, 2.4-5, see also GM 65,
4Q269, frag. 10, 4.17-19, and GM 41, CD-A, 10.6-8). This discrepancy may be reason to suspect th at
one of these documents was not in active use in the Dead Sea Scrolls Community.
<2.2>
The people of the Dead Sea Scrolls put age limits on the leaders of their community as well. "The
priest who [is na]med at the head of the M[any will be between] thirty and sixty [years old,] learned [in
the book of] HAGY, and in all the regulations of t he law" (GM 62, 4Q269, frag. 11, 2.10-13).
Likewise, the Inspector, who is over the camps, must also be between thirty and sixty years of age, and
"master of every secr]et of me[n and in every language" (GM 62, 2.13).
<2.3>
In other areas of the Dead Sea Scrolls, we find other age requirements. In the Temple Scroll, there is a
reference to all the children of Israel assembling, "from those more than twenty years old up to those of
sixty years" (GM 174, 11Q19, 57.1-3). In t he War Scroll, we find special age restrictions in effect for
the time of battle. Those governing the camps must be between fifty and sixty years old, and the
supervisors shall be between forty and fifty years old (GM 100, 1QM, 7. 1-3). The fighters are made up
of stallion-riding men between the ages of thirty and forty-five, while the "horsemen of the rule" are
between forty and fifty years old (GM 100, 1QM, 6.13-14). The general trend in all this seems to be a
higher age requirement as the importance of the task increases, with a minimum of twenty and a
maximum of sixty years of age for participation in any sectarian activity. Regardless of the actual
number of years required for any one position in the community, it is obvious that the age of the pa
rticipants in the Scrolls community was of utmost importance to its members, exemplifying yet another
aspect of the importance of time to the people of the Dead Sea Scrolls.
Back to Top
<3.0> Confusions and Clarifications
As precise and pedantic about time as the Scrolls Community was, there are several places in the
documents where the meaning of their references are unclear, at least to the modern reader. Besides the
previously discussed confusion in the War Scroll regarding the timing of the war, we also finds
confusion in the Temple Scroll. This confusion may be somewhat due to damage in the documents. In
this document, as in Leviticus (23.5), Passover is clearly stated as the fourteenth day of the first month,
followed by the Feast of Leaven on days fifteen through twenty-one (GM 157, 11Q19, 17). The
problem comes when we try to date the next holiday mentioned, the holiday of the new offering (GM
158, 11Q19, 18.11-13). The Temple Scroll says that "You shall count off seven complete sabbaths
from the day on which you fetch the sheaf [from the wave-offering,] you shall count off until the day
following the seventh sabbath, you shall count off [fifty] days, and you shall fetch a new offering to
YHWH from your villages" (GM 158, 11Q19 8.11-13), which is, incidentally, almost exactly what is
stated in the Biblical book of Leviticus (23.15-17). The question is, of course, when is the day when
one fetches the sheaf. Leviticus says that "He [the priest] shall wave the 'omer before the Lord, to be
accepted for you: on the morrow after the sabbath the priest shall wave it"(23.11). If one goes with
conventional Judaism, this is the day after the Passover, that is, the new offering and Passover are
separated by forty-nine days. If one goes with this interpretation, then the New Wine festival is ninety-
nine days after Passover (fifty days after the new offering, GM 158, 11Q19, 19. 12-14) and the New
Oil festival is one hundred and forty-nine days after the Passover (fift y days after the New Wine
festival, GM 159, 21.10-14). Exactly when these festivals take place is not entirely clear, and
unfortunately, this confusion extends to further complicate other areas of confusing text, such as the
calendrical documents.
<3.1>
In 4QCalendrical Document A (4Q320, GM 452) and 4QCalendrical Document B (4Q321, GM 454)
there are references made to unknown calendrical divisions. The unfamiliar words presented in this
document are: Yoyarib (and Yeoarib and Yeyarib, with possibly some inconsistent transliteration by
GM), Yeda^cyah (and Yedaiah, with the same problem), Yarim, She^corim, Malkiyah, Miyyamim,
Haqoz, Abiyah, Yeshu^ca, Shekanyah (and Shekaniah), Elyashib (and Eliashib), Yaqim, Juppa,
Yeshabeb (and Yeshebab), Bilgah, Immer, Yazir (and Chazir, Jazir, and Jezir), Hapizez, Petayyah,
Yehezkiel (and Ezekiel), Gamul, Delayah, Ma^caziyah (and Me^cozayah). These names occur in both
documents in several of the fragments found. In each fragment, a different order of the names is fou nd,
and the only consistency appears to be the period between two names. For example, in fragment four it
says "[The 3rd of Ya]qim, the passover. The 1st [of Yesha]beb, the waving of the sheaf" (GM 454,
4Q320, frag. 4, 5.1-2), and later says "The 3rd of Yehezkiel, the passover. The 1st of Gamul, the
waving of the sheaf" (GM 454, 4Q320, frag. 4, 6.5-6). From this, I assume that the time between any
two named periods is the same; however, since it is impossible to say precisely when the sheaf is
waved ( since the discussion in the Temple Scroll does not indisputably locate either the fetching of the
sheaf or the new offering in time, regardless of which one the sheaf being waved refers to) there is no
way of knowing how long that period may be.
<3.2>
These named periods of time seem to be related both to the familiar jubilees concept as well as to the
lunar cycle. In two fragments of 4Q320 there are references to jubilee. In one, we get a summary of
time divisions which includes jubilees, and a reference to the unfamiliar named divisions: "the days, the
weeks, and the months, Blank the years, the Releases and the jubilees. The 4th of Shebat, son of
Gamul" (GM 453, 4Q320, frag. 4, 2). In the other, we see "the 4th of Shebat" in line four nex t to the
"year of the second jubilee" in the sixth line (GM 453, 4Q320, frag. 2, 1). These references imply a
connection of these named divisions with the jubilee divisions that fits well with other sections
containing these unknown names. For example, the first lines of 4Q320 (frag. 1, 1.1-5) discuss a "first
year," and fragment four (3) states: "the first year. Its festivals." A connection with the cycle of the
moon is similarly arrived at by noting the references to the moon's phases in connection w ith the
named divisions in 4Q320 (GM 452, frag. 1, 1.1-2), and in 4Q321 (GM 454-455, frag.1, 1.1-8, frag.1,
2.1-8). For example, in 4Q321, "and the new moon enters the fifth of She^corim" (GM 454, frag. 1,
2.3). Thus, we can conclude that this cycle is intimately related to the lunar phases. Additionally, it
seems that the cycle employed here begins with the period named Shebat. This conclusion is reached
via several references which place Shebat in the beginning. For instance, in 4Q320, we find Sheba t,
son of Gamul, in "the first month of the [fir]st year" (GM 452, frag. 1, 1.4). In fragment two of the
same document, we find "the 4th of Shebat," juxtaposed with the "beginning of all the years" (GM 453,
frag. 2, 1.4-5). These references, together, lead me to believe that we are dealing with a cycle based on
the phases on the moon, and associated with the jubilee cycle of forty-nine years. Perhaps this cycle is a
cycle for the jubilee which uses the same names for each period in different orders dep ending on
which sabbatical cycle of the jubilee it is. Therefore, there would be seven different orders of named
divisions each with the same amount of named divisions, with one of the seven (the first sabbatical
cycle in the jubilee cycle) beginning wit h the period of Shebat. Since the entirety of the text is not
preserved, this would account for the reason that every order of unknown names given is different. It is
at best difficult to guess what the order of those named divisions would be for each sabbatical cycle,
except that Shebat would start the first sabbatical cycle, and be the first year of the first sabbatical cycle
of every jubilee.
<3.3>
Additionally, we find a passage which may be related to these unidentified divisions in the Rule of the
Community. In 4Q259 (GM 27-29, 5-8,9,11), we find reference to these strange names once again,
especially to Shekaniah, Gamul, and Shebat. These thre e references, along with several others, do also
appear in the calendrical texts, (despite some inconsistent transliteration by GM). In columns five
through seven of 4Q259, the names Gamul and Shekaniah alternate in three year cycles, which
unfortunately does not shed much light on the calendrical documents which do not employ the same
three year rotation. However, in columns eight, nine, and eleven of 4Q259, some of the names found in
the calendrical texts, such as Miyyamim, do appear juxtaposed with t he jubilee terminology. While
this reference does not help to explain the use of these divisions of time, it is useful in that it allows us
to infer that what we see in the Calendrical documents is not limited solely to these documents.
<3.4>
A consultation with the Biblical book of I Chronicles reveals that these names are not entirely
unknown. In I Chronicles (24.7-18), twenty-four priestly courses are listed. The names pertaining to
these courses almost exactly coincide with the names presented in 4QCalendrical Document A,
4QCalendrical Document B, and 4Q259, with a few minor differences. The priestly course of Jachin
appears to have no counterpart in the Dead Sea document, and the word Shebat does not appear in I
Chronicles. The material in I Chronicles does not clarify the juxtaposition of "Gamul" with "the sign
of" that appears in 4Q259 (for example, 5.16). Additionally, since the priestly shift changed weekly,
the discussion in 4Q259 does not follow as it describes a yearly cycle. Although the appearance of the
names in the Dead Sea documents is made more significant by the appearance of these same names in
Biblical sources, it does not fully explain the significance of these names in the scrolls.
4.0 Conclusion
The people of the Dead Sea Scrolls were obsessed with time. In order to fulfill themselves and their
commitment to their religious ideals, an accurate concept of time was necessary. Their calendar was
unusual in several ways, including its use of jubilee s and other unknown temporal divisions. They used
the Jubilee period nomenclature to parse their Biblical history, defining the required minimum ages of
their members and leaders, describing accurately and fully the movement of the moon and assigning
names corresponding to the lunar cycle. The many specific references to the timing of an event, down
to the moment it is or was observed, served to delineate time for the Scrolls Community. Time was
very important to this community, for it was imperative that "the holy days in their sequence" (Garcia-
Martinez, 14, 1QS, 10.5) were undisturbed. The people of the Dead Sea Scrolls came up with many
different ways to make sure time was accurately recorded, and these temporal structures are evident
throughout the texts of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Their lives were unusual in that there were strict age
guidelines governing their own participation in the community. Through the documents that have
survived to this day, we find numerous references to time and its passage and how the Dead Sea Scrolls
people decided to record it.
4.1
.
In such ways the community responsible for the Dead Sea Scrolls made its concept of time firm and
immovable. The documents of a people have only a limited capacity to express their actual
motivations, and judging from the documents of the people of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the motivation to
retain accurate measurements of time must have been enormous.
SOURCES CITED
Garcia Martinez, Florentino.
The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated
: E.J. Brill, 1992. Abbrev.
GM
.
Kraft, Robert A. Oral communication, Lectures of Religious Studies 225, University of Pennsylvania,
Spring Term 1995. Abbrev. Kraft.
Sparks, H.F.D., ed.
The Apocryphal Old Testament
. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984. Abbrev.
AOT
VanderKam, James C.
The Dead Sea Scrolls Today
: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1994.
Abbrev. Vanderkam
SOURCES CONSULTED
Fisch, Harold, ed.
The Jerusalem Bible
. Jerusalem: Koren Publishers, 1992.
Fitzmyer, Joseph A.
Responses to 101 Questions on the Dead Sea Scrolls
: Paulist Press, 1992.
HISTORY OF RESEARCH
http://religion.rutgers.edu/iho/dss.html
"I repeat that in my opinion you have made the greatest manuscript discovery of modern times
--- certainly the greatest biblical manuscript find...What an incredible find!" -- William Foxwell
Albright to John C. Trevor (March 1948) [assessing Trevor's photos of the scroll of Isaiah from cave 1
at Qumran]
"Unless drastic measures are taken at once, the greatest and most valuable of all Hebrew and
Aramaic manuscript discoveries is likely to become the academic scandal par excellence of the
twentieth century." -- Geza Vermes, The Dead Sea Scrolls: Qumran in Perspective (Fortress, 1981), p.
24. The term "Dead Sea Scrolls" has become the standard designation for fragmentary mss. discovered
in limestone caves carved out of cliffs along the wadis that descend through the Judean wilderness to
the left bank of the Dead Sea. From David (10th c. BCE) to the bar Kochba revolt (135 CE), Jewish
fugitives often found shelter in caves in this area. But except for a few scrolls found "near Jericho" in
the 8th c. CE, public attention to texts discovered in the Judean wilderness is a phenomenon of the past
half century. Manuscripts found in eleven caves within a few miles of ancient ruins on a plateau
overlooking the mouth of wadi Qumran have become the primary focus of an intense international
scholarly debate related to the history of Judaism & the origins of Christianity. The main issues in this
debate are:
(1) Were these scrolls composed for members of the same community or for different groups?
(2) Were these scrolls produced at Qumran or were they brought there from someplace else?
(3) Are the authors of these scrolls best identified as members of the Essene sect described by
Josephus, Philo & Pliny or with some other Jewish group(s)? and
(4) Do the contents of these scrolls clarify or alter traditional interpretations of Jewish history
& Christian origins?
Important Manuscripts
Timetable of Discovery & Debate
1947
-- [
Feb
?] Bedouin shepherd finds 7 scrolls in jars in cave above
Khirbet Qumran
-- [
March
] British barricade Jewish settlements in to contain incidents of violence.
-- [
April
] Ta'amireh Bedouin take scrolls to
Bethlehem
antiquities dealer
(
Kando
) who shows them to the Syrian Orthodox Archbishop of Jerusalem (
Athanasius
Yeshue Samuel
) who purchases 4 of them (including the
Isaiah scroll
[above],
Habakkuk
,
Genesis Apocryphon
&
the
Community Rule
for about $250.
-- [
Nov.
] Another Bethlehem antiquities dealer (
Feidi Salahi
) shows 2 other
scrolls to Hebrew University Prof.
Eliezer Sukenik
.
-- [
Nov. 29
] United Nations votes to partition Palestine between Arabs & Jews.
-- [
Dec.
]
Sukenik
buys 3 scrolls (
another Isaiah scroll)
, the
War scroll
, &
Hodayoth
from
Salahi
.
1948
-- [
Jan.
]
Sukenik
sees
Archbishop Samuel
's scrolls but fails to arrange
purchase.
-- [
Feb.
] Syrian Orthodox monk shows
Isaiah scroll
to
John C. Trevor
at
American Schools of Oriental Research (ASOR) center in Jerusalem who, with ASOR
colleague
William Brownlee
, photographs & identifies it .
-- [
Mar.
] American archaeologist,
William F. Albright
, confirms
Trevor
's
identification of
Isaiah scroll
as the oldest known Hebrew manuscript. --
Archbishop Samuel
gives
ASOR
director
Millar Burrows
rights to publicize scrolls & takes scrolls to Beirut as
violence between Arabs & Jews increases.
-- [
Apr. 11
]
Burrows
issues press release announcing the discovery of the
scrolls.
-- [
May 15
] British leave Palestine. Jews establish state of Israel & repel Arab
attacks.
--
Trevor
describes "The Discovery of the Scrolls" in
Biblical Archaeologist
11
(46-68). --
Prof. Sukenik
publishes portions of his scrolls, identifying the authors as Essenes.
--
G. L. Harding
, British director of antiquities for Jordan, launches search for scroll caves
with aid of Jordan's Arab Legion.
1949
-- [
Feb.
]
Harding
authorizes
Roland de Vaux
of French Dominican
l'Ecole
Biblique
to survey
Cave 1
where the first 7 scrolls had been discovered. Many more fragments
recovered, including original Hebrew versions of
Jubilees
& the
Testament of Levi
.
--
Archbishop Samuel
brings 4 scrolls to U.S. to try to raise money for
Palestinian refugees & publishes account of his purchase in
Biblical Archaeologist
12 (26-31).
Scrolls displayed in American museums through 1951.
1950
-- French scholar,
Andrй Dupont-Sommer
, publishes his
Preliminary Views on
the Dead Sea Manuscripts
, identifying them as the product of Essenes & suggesting that they
were composed at the still
unexcavated site
of
Khirbet Qumran
. -- Skeptical historian,
Solomon
Zeitlin
, challenges "The Alleged Antiquity of the Scrolls" & claims they were forgeries (
Jewish
Quarterly Review
40-41). --
W. F. Albright
engages
Zeitlin
in public debate in Philadelphia
presenting persuasive arguments for the authenticity of the scrolls based on external
evidence . --
Trevor
publishes photos of
Isaiah scroll
a
& a commentary on Habakkuk.
1951
--
Burrows
&
Brownlee
publish text of
1QS
as
Manual of Discipline
(1951)
.
--
Harding
locates
Kando
& agrees to purchase all scrolls he can get from Bedouin.
-- [
Nov.
]
Fr. R. de Vaux
begins excavation of
Khirbet Qumran
1952
-- [
Feb.
] Bedouin discover 30 fragments of other scrolls in Cave 2, including
Jubilees
& the
ben Sirach
in the original Hebrew.
-- [
March
] Teams from
ASOR
explore other caves.
Copper scroll
found in Cave3
-- [
Sept.
]
Kando
sells
De Vaux
a large pile of fragments from another cave. --
Jordanian consortium seeks funds from foreign museums & universities to purchase more
scrolls. -- De Vaux locates Cave 4 less than 200 yards from
Khirbet Qumran
. 15000 of
fragments of 574 mss. found including Aramaic versions
1 Enoch
&
Tobit
, a scroll of Samuel
that was closer to the Greek
Septuagint
than the official Hebrew text & fragments of a copy of
the
Damascus Covenant,
a text that had been discovered in 1896 in the geniza of old Cairo
synagogue. -- Nearby Caves 5 & 6 yield fragments of other copies of the
Damascus Covenant
1953
--
R. de Vaux
's lectures to the British Academy on his Qumran excavations
support
Dupont-Sommer
's hypothesis that the scrolls were written in its "scriptorium" by
Essenes. --
Harding
assembles international team of 8 scholars to work on scrolls in east
Jerusalem: from U.S.:
Frank Moore Cross
(McCormick) &
Patrick Skehan
(Catholic U); from
U.K.:
John Allegro
(Manchester) &
John Strugnell
(Oxford) from France:
Dominique
Bartholemy
&
Jean Starcky
from Germany:
Claus-Hunno Hunziger
(Gottingen). from
Poland:
Josef T. Milik
.
De Vaux
named project director.
1954
--
Sukenik
's son,
Yigael Yadin
, in the U.S. arranges covert purchase of
Archbishop Samuel
's 4 scrolls for $250,000. --
Chaim Rabin
(Oxford) re-edits the fragments
of the
Zadokite Document
1955
-- [
Feb.
]
Yadin
returns to Israel reuniting the 7 original scrolls.
-- [
May
] Literary critic
Edmund Wilson
publishes article in the
New Yorker
arguing
Dupont-Sommer
's observation of parallels between the figure of the Teacher of
Righteousness & Jesus indicated that Christian ideas were borrowed from the scrolls.
--
Barth
o
lemy
&
Milik
publish the fragments of Cave 1. -- Caves 7-10 south of
Qumran yield other mss. --
Allegro <javascript:launch('allegro.html')>
(of Manchester U)
enlists Manchester College of Science & Technology's aid in opening the
Copper scroll
.
Sends preliminary transcriptions listing huge buried treasure to
de Vaux
.
1956
--
Allegro
publishes
The Dead Sea Scrolls
, announcing that the
Copper scroll
contained "an inventory of the the sect's most precious possessions" (183). --
De Vaux
&
Harding
issue statement to French Academy dismissing the
Copper scroll
's buried treasure as
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